Whispers and Shadows - Indigenous Presence and Erasure in Australian Film of the 1940s and 1950s

 Whispers and Shadows - Indigenous Presence and Erasure in Australian Film of the 1940s and 1950s

The post-World War II era in Australian cinema presents a complex and often contradictory landscape regarding the representation of Indigenous Australians. While the dominant narrative frequently marginalized or stereotyped Indigenous people, the nascent, and often overlooked, contributions of Indigenous filmmakers themselves offer a crucial counter-narrative. Foremost among these pioneering figures is Bill Onus, whose untitled 1946 documentary footage stands as a monumental, albeit long-obscured, achievement. This chapter will explore key films of the 1940s and 1950s, including Harry Watt’s The Overlanders (1946), Eureka Stockade (1949), Ralph Smart’s Bitter Springs (1950), and Charles Chauvel’s Jedda (1955), while placing particular emphasis on the groundbreaking significance of Onus’s work.

Harry Watt’s 1946 production, The Overlanders, while seemingly progressive for its inclusion of Indigenous actors Henry Murdoch, Clyde Combo, and Bill Onus in speaking roles, warrants a more nuanced critique. While these actors were given screen time and dialogue, their characters were ultimately defined by their utility to the white protagonists’ survival. Their knowledge of the land, their tracking skills, and their physical labor were essential to the success of the cattle drive. This reinforces a colonial trope of the "helpful native," whose value is contingent upon their service to the white agenda. The anecdote about Murdoch carrying Shakespeare, while intended to humanize him, could also be interpreted through a paternalistic lens – the "noble savage" possessing an unexpected connection to Western culture, thus making him more palatable to a white audience. Were their own cultural knowledge systems and intellectual traditions given equal weight or recognition? The film, despite its surface-level inclusivity, ultimately reinforces a hierarchy where Indigenous expertise is instrumental but subordinate to white leadership and goals.

The rediscovery of Bill Onus’s untitled 1946 documentary footage is a profoundly significant event, offering a crucial disruption to the dominant narrative. As detailed in the documentary Ablaze (2021) and reported by ABC News, the fact that the first known film by an Indigenous Australian filmmaker remained lost for decades speaks volumes about the systemic neglect and erasure of Indigenous voices within the Australian film industry and broader society. This absence is not merely accidental; it reflects a historical context where Indigenous perspectives were actively suppressed or deemed irrelevant. The footage found which was filmed was of a theatre production called White Justice which was based in the 1946 Aboriginal strike in the Pilbara and was produced by the Melbourne New Theatre and the Australian Aboriginal League. 

The act of Onus creating a "drama" – a constructed narrative – suggests a deliberate move beyond passive representation as subjects of a white gaze. It speaks to a desire to articulate Indigenous experiences, perspectives, and stories on their own terms, potentially challenging the often-simplistic and dehumanizing portrayals prevalent in mainstream media of the time. The ongoing efforts to understand and contextualize this footage are vital in reclaiming a lost history and acknowledging Indigenous agency in early filmmaking. The documentary Ablaze serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of archival research and the need to actively seek out and amplify marginalized voices.

In 1947, the non-Indigenous director Lee Robinson captured the life and art of Albert Namajira in the documentary Namatjira the Painter (1947). Robinson also cast Namatjira in a small role in the film The Phantom Stockman (1953) with Chips Rafferty. 

The uncredited appearance of Henry Murdoch in Eureka Stockade (1949), another Harry Watt-directed Ealing Studios production, further underscores the precarious and often invisible position of Indigenous actors. Their presence, even in films depicting significant moments in Australian history, was often deemed inconsequential enough to warrant exclusion from the credits. This act of omission reflects a broader societal indifference to Indigenous contributions and a refusal to acknowledge their integral role in the nation’s story, even when that story involved conflict and dispossession..

Ralph Smart’s Bitter Springs (1950), also an Ealing Studios production featuring Henry Murdoch (credited) and around 50 uncredited Indigenous actors including Steve Dodd, while lauded for its attempt to address the issue of settler encroachment and its inclusion of the Pitjantjatjarra language, still operates within the framework of a white-authored narrative. As noted by Liz McNiven in her curation notes for the Australian Screen Online, the focus remains on the moral awakening of the white protagonist, Wally King (Chips Rafferty), and his decision to adopt a more conciliatory approach. While the film’s advocacy for negotiation and resource sharing was progressive for its time, it ultimately positions the white man as the arbiter of justice and the one who grants Indigenous people the right to exist and work on their own land. The rewritten ending, while avoiding a massacre, still reinforces a paternalistic dynamic where Indigenous survival and well-being are dependent on the goodwill of the white settlers. The uncredited presence of around 50 Indigenous actors, while providing a powerful visual representation of the community, also raises questions about their agency and compensation. Were they fairly remunerated? Were their perspectives on the story sought or valued beyond their physical presence? The film, despite its positive intentions, risks perpetuating a narrative where Indigenous people are acted upon rather than acting as agents of their own destiny. The provided clips from the film further illustrate the dynamics between the white settlers and the Indigenous community, prompting critical analysis of the performances and the framing of these relationships.

Charles Chauvel’s Jedda (1955), also released under the title Jedda - the Uncivilised, represents a significant step forward in terms of casting Indigenous actors Ngarla Kunoth and Robert Tudawali in leading roles and focusing the narrative on an Indigenous protagonist. Kunoth’s powerful performance as Jedda and Tudawali’s compelling portrayal of Marbuck brought Indigenous talent and stories to the forefront of Australian cinema in an unprecedented way. The film’s exploration of cultural identity and the devastating consequences of forced assimilation were groundbreaking for their time. However, a sensitive analysis must also acknowledge the limitations inherent in a film directed by a non-Indigenous filmmaker. While Chauvel’s intentions may have been progressive, the narrative is ultimately filtered through a white lens. The tragic ending, where Jedda and Marbuck are depicted as succumbing to their “primitive instincts,” can be interpreted as reinforcing colonial stereotypes about the inherent “savagery” of Indigenous people and the impossibility of bridging the cultural divide. The very title Jedda - the Uncivilised reveals the underlying colonial assumptions about Indigenous culture as being inherently inferior to white civilization.

The decades of obscurity surrounding Onus’s work are deeply telling. This absence underscores the systemic biases and historical amnesia that have characterized the Australian film industry and broader society’s engagement with Indigenous culture. The fact that the first Indigenous-directed film remained lost for so long highlights the urgent need for continued archival research and a commitment to decentering dominant historical narratives. The tireless efforts of Tiriki Onus, Bill’s grandson, and Alec Morgan in uncovering and bringing this history to light through the documentary Ablaze are not just acts of film historical recovery; they are acts of cultural reclamation and intergenerational connection. They serve as a powerful reminder that Indigenous histories and creative contributions are not relics of the past but living legacies that continue to shape our understanding of the present. Bill Onus was not simply a filmmaker; he was a prominent Aboriginal activist and leader. His foray into filmmaking should be understood within the broader context of his lifelong commitment to fighting for Indigenous rights and self-determination. His engagement with the medium of film likely stemmed from a recognition of its power to shape public perception and to disseminate alternative narratives.

In conclusion, the cinema of the 1940s and 1950s in Australia reveals a complex and often contradictory landscape of Indigenous representation. While moments of visibility and even seemingly progressive portrayals existed in films like The Overlanders, Bitter Springs, and the landmark Jedda, they were frequently circumscribed by non-Indigenous perspectives, colonial tropes, and systemic erasure. The groundbreaking work of Bill Onus in 1946, though belatedly recognized, stands as a powerful reminder of Indigenous agency and the desire for self-representation. A sensitive and critical analysis of this era requires us to look beyond the surface-level inclusion and to interrogate the underlying power dynamics, narrative frameworks, and enduring legacies of these early cinematic encounters with Indigenous Australia. It necessitates a commitment to uncovering marginalized voices and challenging the dominant narratives that have historically shaped our understanding of Indigenous presence in film and media. Bill Onus’s pioneering work serves as an inspiration and a crucial reminder of the enduring importance of Indigenous self-representation in shaping a more just and truthful understanding of Australian history and identity.

Overall, the cinema of the 1940s and 1950s in Australia presents a contradictory landscape of visibility and erasure for Indigenous Australians. While mainstream productions like The Overlanders, Bitter Springs, and Jedda offered screen presence and sometimes engaged with Indigenous issues, these narratives were frequently filtered through a non-Indigenous lens, perpetuating colonial tropes and limiting the agency afforded to Indigenous actors within paternalistic frameworks. Against this backdrop, the groundbreaking, yet long-obscured, contribution of Bill Onus and his 1946 documentary footage emerges as a vital act of early Indigenous self-representation, directly challenging the systemic silencing of Indigenous voices. Modern Indigenous Australian perspectives critically assess this era for its reinforcement of harmful stereotypes and its centering of white narratives, even in seemingly progressive projects. Nevertheless, analyzing these films, particularly the pioneering work of Onus, remains crucial for understanding the historical context of Indigenous representation, acknowledging the early efforts towards self-determination, and tracing the ongoing struggle for narrative sovereignty in Australian cinema.

References

Chauvel, C. (Director) (1955) Jedda.

Eckersley, M. (2014, May 26). Australian Indigenous Drama on Film. Australian Indigenous Drama. Available from: https://australianindigenousdrama.blogspot.com/2014/05/australian-indigenous-drama-on-film.html

Griffiths, S. (2002). 'Representing the 'Other': Race, Gender and Nation in Australian Cinema'. In The Oxford Guide to Australian Film (pp. 165-184). Oxford University Press.

Krausz, P. (n.d.). Screening Indigenous Australia: An overview of Aboriginal representation on film. [online] Available at: https://kooriweb.org/foley/resources/media/indigenousfilm.pdf.

Smart, R. (Director) (1950) Bitter Springs. Ealing Studios.

Watt, H. (Director) (1946) The Overlanders.

Watt, H. (Director) (1949) Eureka Stockade. Ealing Studios.

Additional References

Ablaze (2021) Documentary.

Administration (2021). Was activist Bill Onus our first Aboriginal film-maker? [online] The Lighthouse. Available at: https://lighthouse.mq.edu.au/article/july-2021/was-activist-bill-onus-our-first-aboriginal-film-maker

Batty, P. (2007). Black Tracks: Contemporary Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Performance. University of Queensland Press.

Chauvel, C. (1956) Jedda: the uncivilised. Sydney: Scripts.

Gibson, R. (1992). 'The Passion of Dirk Hartog: Historical Archaeology, National Identity and Australian Film'. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 5(2), 203-225.

Murray, S. (2007) The cinema of Australia. Eastgardens, NSW: McGraw-Hill Australia.

Pike, A. & Cooper, R. (1998) Australian film 1900-1977: A guide to feature film production. Revised edition. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Reid, N. (2004) ‘Jedda’ in Australian cinema: pioneers, outsiders and rebels. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, pp. 124-133.

Ryan, S. (2014, May 26). Australian Indigenous Drama on Film. Australian Indigenous Drama. Available from: https://australianindigenousdrama.blogspot.com/2014/05/australian-indigenous-drama-on-film.html

Shoemaker, A. (1998) ‘Film’ in A companion to Australian history. Edited by S. Foster & M. French. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp. 465-480.

Shoemaker, A. (2004). 'Representations of Aboriginal People in Australian Film'. In The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia (Vol. 2, pp. 908-913). Aboriginal Studies Press.

Smith, R. (2002) Australian film. Melbourne: Schwartz Publishing.

Turner, G. (2006) Film as social practice. 4th edn. London: Routledge.

Williams, D. (1996) Indigenous Australians and the cinema. Cinema Papers no. 108, pp. 12-15

Williams, S. (2003) Ossie Davis Onscreen: Film and Television Performances. Palgrave Macmillan.

Wright, D. (2013) Charles Chauvel: Australia's first film-maker. North Sydney, NSW: Random House Australia.

Additional Academic Papers and Theses

Debenham, J.A. (2013) Representations of Aborigines in Australian Documentary Film 1901 - 2009. PhD thesis, University of Newcastle. Available from: https://nova.newcastle.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/uon:13508/ATTACHMENT01

Frey, A. (2015) Eco-Fourth Cinema: Indigenous Rights and Environmental Crises. PhD thesis, University of Queensland. Available from: https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:f232a64/s4330872_final_thesis.pdf

Hampson, J. (2010) Reorienting the Feminine Other in Australian Film. BA thesis, University of Queensland. Available from: https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:3b58300/s44184267_final_thesis.pdf

Langton, M. (2003) Beyond the burden of history in Indigenous Australian cinema. Film Studies, 20(1), 36-53.

 

Early Representations of Indigenous Australians in Film

The earliest films featuring Indigenous Australians offer a complex and often troubling glimpse into the development of ethnographic filmmaking and the representation of First Nations peoples. These works, primarily created by non-Indigenous filmmakers, reflect the scientific and cultural biases of the time, even as some demonstrate a degree of curiosity and, at times, respect. This chapter examines some of these foundational works, highlighting their significance in the history of Australian cinema and their problematic legacy in portraying Indigenous cultures.

One of the earliest examples is the 1898 documentary Malu-Bomai Ceremony at Kiam - Torres Strait Islander Ceremony. Directed by English anthropologist A.C. Haddon during his expedition to the Torres Strait, this short film (of which only four and a half minutes of 35mm footage remain) is significant as the first known use of moving images for ethnographic recording. Filmed on Murray Island, it captures dance sequences from longer ceremonies or storytelling traditions, showcasing traditional costumes and headdresses. While groundbreaking for its time, it's crucial to acknowledge that these images were captured through a colonial lens. Contemporary viewings by Mer nation descendants have provided crucial context, adding layers of cultural understanding and knowledge that were absent in the original production. The film, while valuable as a historical record, exemplifies the inherent power imbalance in early ethnographic filmmaking, where Indigenous agency and self-representation were largely absent.

In 1901, Walter Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen created a series of Field Study Note Films. This collection is notable because of the unusual relationship that Frank Gillen, a telegraph operator who had been initiated into an Aranda tribe, had with various Aranda peoples. Gillen's linguistic skills and unique position allowed for a degree of consultation with the Indigenous communities being filmed, offering some insight into their perspectives. While not entirely free of the biases of the time, these films represent a somewhat more nuanced approach to ethnographic filmmaking. They demonstrate an attempt to provide some Indigenous Australian context to the observed and filmed activities, a departure from the purely observational style of much of the era's ethnographic work. However, it is important to remember that the power dynamic inherent in the filming process still greatly affected what was captured and how it was presented.

A significant cultural artifact from this period is the 1903 wax recording of Fanny Cochrane Smith. Though not a film or radio broadcast, this recording is crucial for its preservation of Tasmanian First Nations languages and songlines. Smith, believed to be the last known speaker of these languages, recorded five wax cylinders of songs and songlines, though only four survived by 1949. Her reported reaction upon hearing her own voice – believing it to be the voice of her mother's spirit and lamenting the fate of her people – underscores the profound sense of loss and cultural disruption experienced by Indigenous Australians during this era. This recording serves as a stark reminder of the devastating impact of colonization on Indigenous languages and cultural practices.

The work of Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen continued in 1912 with their 1912 Field Study Note Films, produced through the National Museum of Victoria in Melbourne. In 1913, T.J. West created Aborigines of Victoria, likely the first film made of Victorian First Nations peoples. This film depicts Kurnai people at the Lake Tyers' Mission, showing them attending church and school, as well as engaging in traditional activities like basket weaving. Aborigines of Victoria presents a mixed and complex view, showing both the influence of European colonization and the persistence of traditional practices.

Also in 1913, Eric Mjöberg's expedition to Cape York resulted in ethnographic footage that is both valuable and deeply problematic. While the footage itself documents aspects of Indigenous life, Mjöberg's research was driven by a desire to prove Darwinian principles, and he is known to have stolen Indigenous Australian artifacts and desecrated burial sites. The later efforts of his great-niece, Lotte Mjöberg, to seek reconciliation and return these objects and remains highlight the ethical complexities and lasting harm inflicted by early ethnographic expeditions. The return in 2004 of eighteen boxes of objects and human remains to their rightful custodians underscores the ongoing need to address the legacies of colonialism and exploitation within the history of ethnographic research.

The participation of Indigenous Australians in military conflicts, such as the Boer War and World War I, is a significant aspect of their history, yet one that has often been marginalized in mainstream film and media. Despite facing systemic exclusion and discrimination, with the 1910 amendment to the Australian Defence Act of 1903 explicitly preventing those "not substantially of European origin or descent" from enlisting, many Indigenous Australians served with distinction. Over 1,000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders are estimated to have served in World War I, with at least 70 fighting in the Gallipoli campaign. Their reasons for enlisting were complex, including a sense of duty, a desire for adventure, and the hope of gaining equal treatment, but primarily stemmed from a deep connection to and responsibility for their country.

However, the representation of these Indigenous soldiers in film and media has been strikingly absent. Mainstream productions about World War I, such as Before Dawn (2024), Beneath Hill 60 (2010), Gallipoli (1981), and others, largely fail to include Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander characters or acknowledge their contributions. This erasure reinforces a broader pattern of historical amnesia, where Indigenous sacrifices are overlooked and marginalized. As the Australian War Memorial’s first Indigenous liaison officer, Gary Oakley, noted, these men possessed a "warrior spirit" and a desire to prove themselves, fighting for a country that did not fully recognize them as citizens. The lack of representation in film and media not only dishonors their service but also perpetuates a skewed understanding of Australian history, where the contributions of First Nations peoples are rendered invisible. It is important to note that the Australian War Memorial (AWM) and other archives hold collections that include footage and photographs documenting Indigenous Australian soldiers in both World War I and World War II. These archival materials, while not always widely accessible, offer valuable evidence of Indigenous participation and sacrifice, countering the erasure often seen in mainstream film.

In 1917, William Jackson directed Chez les sauvages Australiens, an Australian/French documentary. This film, while described as "engaging" and "relatively respectful" for its time, showcases Indigenous Australian dance sequences and other cultural practices, seemingly from various parts of the Kimberley region, including the Western Desert, and involving people from the Bunuban, Worrorran, and Jarrakan cultural groups. Even with a degree of respect, the film still operates within the framework of the ethnographic gaze, presenting Indigenous cultures to a European audience and raising questions about representation and cultural appropriation.

These early films, while often valuable as historical records, are also products of their time, reflecting the biases and power dynamics of the colonial era. They highlight the need for critical analysis when examining representations of Indigenous Australians in early cinema and serve as a reminder of the ongoing importance of Indigenous self-representation and control over their own narratives.

In 1921, Frank Hurley, known for his dramatic style, directed Pearls and Savages. This silent black and white film, drawn from Hurley's two trips to the Torres Strait Islands and Papua New Guinea, documents sequences and dance ceremonies on Thursday Island, a boat regatta from Coconut Island, fishing practices from Darnley Island, and food preparation on Mabuiag. While seemingly a landmark film, a darker narrative underlies Pearls and Savages. Hurley's work has been criticized for its misrepresentation of Torres Strait Islander people, exploitation, cultural appropriation, and the theft of cultural artifacts. Hurley's approach, while visually striking, often prioritized spectacle over cultural sensitivity, reinforcing a pattern of non-Indigenous filmmakers extracting and commodifying Indigenous imagery and practices.

The year 1922 saw the release of Native Australia, a series of ethnographic films sponsored by Kodak and directed by Brooke Nicholls. This collection includes segments such as "Australian Aborigines - corroborees," "Australian Aborigines - women at work and play," "Australian Aborigines — implements and weapons," and "Australian Aborigines - arts and crafts." These films, now held in the Mitchell Library in Sydney, and by Film Australia, provide further examples of the ethnographic approach of the time. While documenting various aspects of Indigenous life, they often lack Indigenous voices and perspectives, framing Indigenous cultures as objects of study rather than living, dynamic societies. The sponsorship by Kodak, a company associated with mass-market image capture, also speaks to the broader context of how Indigenous imagery was being consumed and circulated.

Frank Birtles, known for his cinematic documentation of his car journeys across Australia, also captured footage of Indigenous Australians in his 1922 film Coorab in the Island of Ghosts. While not the central focus of his films, Birtles' work includes footage of Indigenous communities, offering glimpses of their cultures. Birtles' travelogue filmmaking, while perhaps well-intentioned, often presented a fragmented and romanticized view of Indigenous life, fitting it into a broader narrative of Australian exploration and adventure.

The University of Adelaide's Board for Anthropological Research produced a series of documentary films during the 1930s, including Macdonald Downs Expedition (1930), Cockatoo Creek Expedition (1931), Mount Liebig Expedition (1932), Mann Range Expedition (1933), Ernabella Expedition (1934), Diamantina Expedition, 1934, and Warburton Range Expedition (1935), and Coorong Expedition (1937). These films, driven by anthropological research, continued the trend of documenting Indigenous life through a scientific lens. While contributing to the body of knowledge about Indigenous cultures, these films often perpetuate a sense of Indigenous people as subjects of study, analyzed and categorized by non-Indigenous researchers. The very titles of these films, named after the locations of the expeditions, reflect this approach, prioritizing the geographical context of the research over the agency and self-representation of the people being filmed.

The mid-1930s also saw the emergence of Indigenous Australian actors in feature films. Charles Chauvel's 1936 film Uncivilised, an action-adventure film intended for international audiences, notably features Indigenous Australian actor, director, and artist Bill Onus, alongside Dennis Hoey and Kenneth Brampton. Uncivilised is a landmark film, representing what is probably the first appearance of an Indigenous Australian actor in a feature film. However, the film itself, while breaking ground in casting, likely still contained problematic representations common to the era.

Bill Onus also appeared in K.G. Hall's 1937 romantic melodrama Lovers and Luggers (also known as Vengeance of the Deep), produced by Cinesound Productions Limited. This film's inclusion of an Indigenous actor, while significant, occurred within the context of a genre that often exoticized and romanticized Indigenous cultures.

These films from the 1920s and 1930s, therefore, present a complex and often contradictory picture. They serve as valuable historical documents, preserving footage of Indigenous life and cultural practices that might otherwise have been lost. However, they also reveal the power dynamics inherent in the filmmaking process, the prevalence of the ethnographic gaze, and the challenges faced by Indigenous Australians in controlling their own representation on screen. These early works laid the foundation for later developments in Australian cinema, both the problematic tropes and the gradual emergence of Indigenous self-representation, which would become increasingly important in the decades to follow.

This blog entry examines the early and often troubling representations of Indigenous Australians in film, largely through the lens of non-Indigenous ethnographic filmmakers. Major themes include the dominance of the "ethnographic gaze," the power imbalances inherent in colonial filmmaking, the problematic nature of cultural appropriation and misrepresentation, and the erasure of Indigenous voices and perspectives. The chapter also highlights the significance of early recordings in preserving aspects of Indigenous culture, even within a context of exploitation. Modern Indigenous Australian perspectives and pedagogy would likely critically assess these films by interrogating their colonial biases, challenging their objectification of Indigenous peoples, and emphasizing the need for Indigenous self-representation and narrative sovereignty. These films should still be watched and analyzed, not to valorize their problematic aspects, but to understand the historical context of Indigenous representation, to trace the evolution of filmmaking practices, and to acknowledge the ongoing impact of these early depictions on contemporary understandings of Indigenous cultures.

References

Birtles, F. (1922) Coorab in the Island of Ghosts.

Chauvel, C. (Director) (1936) Uncivilised.

Daley, P. (2015). Black Anzac: the life and death of an Aboriginal man who fought for king and country. The Guardian. [online] 25 Mar. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/mar/25/black-anzac-the-life-and-death-of-an-aboriginal-man-who-fought-for-king-and-country

Debenham, J.A. (2013) Representations of Aborigines in Australian Documentary Film 1901 - 2009. PhD thesis, University of Newcastle. Available from: https://nova.newcastle.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/uon:13508/ATTACHMENT01

Eckersley, M. (2014, May 26). Australian Indigenous Drama on Film. Australian Indigenous Drama. Available from: https://australianindigenousdrama.blogspot.com/2014/05/australian-indigenous-drama-on-film.html.

Hall, K.G. (Director) (1937) Lovers and Luggers (also known as Vengeance of the Deep). Cinesound Productions Limited.

Haddon, A.C. (Director). (1898). Malu-Bomai Ceremony at Kiam - Torres Strait Islander Ceremony.

Hurley, F. (Director) (1921) Pearls and Savages.

Jackson, W. (Director) (1917) Chez les sauvages Australiens. Australian/French documentary.

Mjöberg, E. (1913) Ethnographic footage from Cape York expedition.

Nicholls, B. (Director) (1922) Native Australia. Kodak.

Oakley, G. (First Indigenous liaison officer) Australian War Memorial.

Onus, B. (Actor) (1936) Uncivilised.

Onus, B. (Actor) (1937) Lovers and Luggers.

Smith, F.C. (1903) Wax cylinder recordings.

Spencer, W.B. & Gillen, F. (1901) Field Study Note Films.

Spencer, W.B. & Gillen, F. (1912) Field Study Note Films. National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne.

West. T.J. (Director) (1913) Aborigines of Victoria.

University of Adelaide's Board for Anthropological Research (1930s) Documentary films, including:

Macdonald Downs Expedition (1930)

Cockatoo Creek Expedition (1931)

Mount Liebig Expedition (1932)

Mann Range Expedition (1933)

Ernabella Expedition (1934)

Diamantina Expedition, 1934

Warburton Range Expedition (1935)

Coorong Expedition (1937).